plate tectonics

What Is a Volcano? How the Ground Melts and Lets Go

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Black volcanic beach with foaming ocean waves

What is a volcano? Structurally it is just an opening in a planet’s crust where molten rock, gas, and ash reach the surface. But the interesting question is why rock melts down there in the first place — because under most conditions, the mantle is solid. Why Rock Melts Underground There are three ways to … Read more

What Causes Earthquakes? Plates, Faults, and Why They Stop Suddenly

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Why Do Stars Twinkle? The Atmosphere's Distorting Lens

What causes earthquakes? The short version: rock on either side of a fault wants to move, friction holds it in place, stress builds for decades or centuries, and then friction loses. The rock snaps to a new position in seconds and the stored elastic energy radiates outward as seismic waves. That is the shaking. The … Read more

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